Jan 17, 2017 | Research Updates
Craig Surman, M.D.
Massachusetts General Hospital
We see many individuals who find themselves getting less out of college than they expected, or had to take time off to regroup. Among the many lessons of school, one of the more important ones for people to master is how to learn the best way for them. There are a few things clients with ADHD tell me they wish they had known before they walked into their first dorm room and first large lecture hall, and a lot of it boils down to how to use what is available to make a school fit their needs.
Here is a list of several things that may be useful to cover with students with ADHD who have had to figure out college the hard way. You will have your own to add, and would love to read your responses on the APSARD website members’ forum!!
There is only so much that telling our clients can do to change their behaviour, and each individual will have their own key challenges to address. But here are some of the topics …. in no particular order
1. It is good to know what you don’t do well, and plan accordingly
Some things we do just get done. Others take effort. This goes beyond planning tutors ahead of time for courses that are hard. What makes your client successful as a teammate, as a student, as an employee, or even as a friend? Was it being interested? Was it having other people involved? Did they have good role models? Managing whatever is hard at school can be easier if a person knows the kinds of supports to seek.
2. Never underestimate teamwork
For everything a person does not do well on their own, consider whether it helps them to get other people involved. From helping choose classes, planning study schedules, deciding on a paper topic, or getting steps done towards a long term project – having other brains involved can go a long way. Even just studying where other people are studying – certainly not where people are not studying (!) helps many people.
3. Make a big school smaller
Dropping into office hours, talking with a TA about the best path through a major – the more you engage with others, the less alone you will be in the work.
4. Help them decide how to be an active learner
When you can, get access to subject matter that will be covered and what points are unclear – if you have questions you will engage the material better.
5. Check that things have been moved from short to long-term memory
It may help to educate students on how to make sure things get registered in short term memory, and moved into long-term memory – – suggest they spend study sessions reviewing material and trying to write it out from memory to check whether it got into short term memory. At the next study session, they should check that they can write out all that they previously studied to see if it made it into long term memory.
6. Know how you will be tested
If students are not sure, they should ask about the format of exams – multiple choice, short-essay, etc. Preparation should include self-testing, when possible, in the same format that actual exams will take.
7. Get approval to use, and know how to use, the disability support office before arrival at school,
Each school has different requirements for using disability support services.
Some of them are also more “self-help” than full service – – e.g., “Yes, we will give you class notes, but you will have to find your own note taker and go across campus to use the copy machine”, “Yes, your professors can give you extra time on tests, but it is up to you to get each Professor on board and to figure out where and when you will be taking these exams”. Contacting the disability services coordinator to know how they handle extra time on tests, copies of class notes, and arranging testing in quiet areas will help students with ADHD be informed and make sure supports are in place beforehand.
8. Questions about planning work
Do they use a planner? Does it have a long-view and a short view? Is the screen on a phone enough to see what is coming? Is a wall calendar a better idea?
Do they have a method for breaking down long-term work like projects and papers and studying into discrete steps?
How are their time estimates? Are they better served by doubling the time each step will take? Or does their work seem to fill all available time, and might benefit from more deadlines?
Can they make a habit of knowing priorities for each day and week? Can they stick to a plan of what they will do at different times of the week?
9. Work in the right place
While some people can work in their dorm room with devices and other people around, its often just too tempting for distractions. Help your clients be honest about where you work best. Is it in a quiet corner of the library? Is it at a study center? Is it with other people studying the same material? Having a special spot for a project or intense work can help condition a person to use that area well. Maybe they have to find a spot with no or at least poor Wi-Fi reception while they are at it to reduce distraction – if they can.
9. Help them prioritize self-care in their schedule
It might help to have a clear, written template of what an ideal productive, and enjoyable, week looks like. Should they start by blocking off time for sleep, exercise, classes, and school work – and then find the gaps where they can fit the rest of college life?
10, Planning coursework to spread out the load – and exam periods –
Having 5 papers due in a short period of time, or 4 tests that all require memorizing, can be a real problem. When you can, anticipate these sorts of crunch periods rather than waiting until they swamp you unexpectedly. Choosing courses based on your interest is important, but you must also consider how you will be able to perform at test time and manage multiple deadlines in a brief period.
11. Can students match the class schedule to their natural schedule?
If they are night owls, maybe they should avoid those early morning classes. Can they sit through 4 consecutive classes in one day, or is it better to space them out and have breaks for studying between classes? Where there is a choice, a proactive plan can lead to a more comfortable and successful experience.
12. Are they motivated to make friends with people who are there to get the most out of school?
Helping individuals think about who to align themselves with can lead to better engagement in school. When the friends in their group are letting loose and not studying, it is going to be that much harder for students with ADHDto hit the books. It may help to think about who they might ask to be study partners.
13. Can they learn the art of rewarding themselves for hard work?
What makes them proud of how they spent their time in a day? Do they think about what they will need to get done to really enjoy that study break? What is a payoff they can achieve by keeping to their work goals?
14. How can medication management be optimized?
Lack of local providers, difficulty getting to a pharmacy, new sleep-wake schedules, exacerbation of side effects by poor sleep and compensation with excessive caffeine, requests from peers to share meds – there are many challenges to navigate in optimizing medication management at school. Some of these may not be avoidable, but it may help to talk through with a client their plans for getting, taking, and adjusting medication proactively– as well as to review how it has been going.
Jan 10, 2017 | Research Updates
Arthur D. Anastopoulos, Ph.D.
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
If someone with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) can get into college, they should be just as likely as the next person to successfully earn their college degree, correct? Unfortunately, research findings paint a very different picture. When compared to their non-ADHD counterparts, college students with ADHD tend to earn lower grades, take longer to earn a college degree, and are more likely to drop out of college. Why might this happen? No one knows for sure but it may stem from a “perfect storm” of circumstances that converge to work against college students with ADHD. Inherent in the transition from high school to college is a dramatic increase in demands for regulating one’s own behavior, not only in terms of staying on top of school work but also with respect to managing personal matters, health, friendships, and money. Successfully navigating this transition is a major developmental challenge for anyone, ADHD or not. For someone with ADHD, a disorder characterized by significant deficits in one’s capacity for self-regulation, this developmental challenge is substantially greater. Further complicating matters is that various treatments (e.g, medication, counseling) and sources of support (e.g., parental monitoring, classroom accommodations), which may have been in place earlier, are often discontinued in college. The stage is therefore set for failure to occur.
Over the past five years my colleagues, Drs. George DuPaul (Lehigh University) and Lisa Weyandt (University of Rhode Island), and I have been conducting a longitudinal investigation funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. The goal of this study has been to gain insight into how ADHD unfolds across the college years and impacts educational and other types of functioning. A total of 456 first-year college students with and without ADHD began the project, with ADHD status and the presence of depression and other mental health conditions carefully determined by a panel of mental health experts. Similar diagnostic information, as well as information about each participant’s educational, psychological, social, emotional, and vocational functioning, was collected annually across a 4-year period.
Preliminary analyses have revealed some very interesting, yet sobering findings. Relative to their non-ADHD peers, college students with ADHD not only perform less well academically, but also display higher rates of depression and other psychological problems, engage in risky sexual behavior, and use tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana more frequently. Such differences emerge in the first year of college and continue to be present across four years.
So what does all of this mean? From a “perfect storm” perspective, it may be the case that college students with ADHD need to continue receiving treatment services and campus supports aimed at improving their capacity for self-regulation, in order to function more successfully in college. In the absence of such assistance, our findings also raise the possibility that college students with ADHD are likely to enter their post-college adult years at a distinct disadvantage relative to their non-ADHD counterparts, including remaining at increased risk for various psychological, social, and vocational difficulties.
Fortunately, there has been a recent surge of research interest in the development and testing of psychosocial interventions for ADHD during the high-risk college years. For college students with ADHD, the sooner such research is completed, the better.
Dr. Anastopoulos will be presenting at the 2017 APSARD Annual Meeting on “Longitudinal Course of ADHD in College Students.”
Jan 4, 2017 | Research Updates, Uncategorized
Roberta Waite, EdD, PMHCNS-BC, FAAN, ANEF
Drexel University
By Roberta Waite and Meghan S. Leahy
In the 1970’s, Kabat-Zinn popularized mindfulness meditation (MM) as many people sought non-medication interventions for a variety of conditions. Consequently, mindfulness interventions are increasingly used to address many health-related concerns. Today, MM is seen as a practical skill to use that benefits well-being, including being viewed as an option for individuals affected by ADHD.
Mindfulness focuses attention on the person’s current experience, preparing them to be receptive to experiences instead of avoiding them via repression. This allows the person to adopt a fresh perspective or apply a
Meghan Leahy, MS, NCC Founder of Leahy Learning
“beginner’s mind” to ways of receiving life experiences (Greenberg et al., 2012). MM suggests an open and purposefully attentive state of mind (Thomas & Atkinson, 2016). The individual’s attention remains in the here-and-now, and thoughts and emotions that surface are observed non-judgmentally (Bachmann et al., 2016). Because ADHD is characterized by a persistent pattern of age inappropriate displays of attention and/or hyperactive-impulsive behaviors that create functional impairments across multiple settings, consistent practice of MM may help to improve one’s attentional control, thereby decreasing their inattention and impulsivity. Specifically, mindfulness can facilitate improvement of ADHD on three fundamental levels – neuropsychological, structural/functional, and behavioral.
Neuropsychological and Structural/Functional Level
On a neuropsychological level, MM can improve functioning on tasks measuring executive functioning including attention, cognitive control, as well as working memory. Since we also know that neuronal plasticity can be improved by intense, persistent, and habitual restorative interventions, MM may improve psychological performance. This is of interest since ADHD is recognized to be linked to structural, functional, and neurochemical brain abnormalities. MM which is characterized as a form of mental training, may moderate neuropsychological deficits in ADHD. Specifically, areas of attention control and emotion regulation can be positively affected by strengthening areas of brain thought to bring about these deficits.
Through use of MM, individuals affected by ADHD can foster behavioral inhibition skills by learning to observe emotional states as transient events, thus promoting emotional regulation. While emotion regulation does not serve as a primary diagnostic trait of ADHD, it is a factor in many areas of functioning, particularly in interpersonal relationships. By enhancing emotional regulation through MM the person develops strategies that aid in affecting the occurrence, experience, and expression of emotions (Bachmann et al., 2016).
Although the full mechanism of mindfulness mediation remains elusive as it relates to changes within the neurobiological process, it can be postulated that MM alters “brain structure and function by myelinogenesis, synaptogenesis, dendritic branching, or adult neurogenesis” (Bachmann et al., 2016, p. 117). Even more, it seems that MM may have favorable effects on neuronal protection, renewal, and/or preventing cell death as well as improving cognitive control to create a steady pattern of deactivation in brain regions related to a mindfulness state (Bueno et al., 2015). Taken together, it is evident that “habits of mind” such as practicing MM modifies both the structure and the functioning of the brain. By stimulating both neuroplasticity and mental self-discipline, MM also aids in stress reduction which is quite relevant for persons affected by ADHD, as stress magnifies restlessness and concentration difficulties, as well as frustration and irritability. Cultivating ways of managing stress via MM (e.g., focusing on the present and increasing self-awareness) ultimately promotes the overall well-being of individuals who practice it. Healthy psychological functioning among persons affected by ADHD appears to depend on the well-coordinated operation of neuronal networks. To that end, great promise exists with MM since it provides a tool with which persons with ADHD can better promote self-regulation (Bachmann et al. 2016).
Behavioral Level
On a behavioral level, MM places emphasis on improving the ability to control attention and inhibit automatic responses. Practitioners of MM have improved ability to self-reflect and consequently are better able to foster self-esteem and empathy for others. Abrams (2013) reports that MM reduces behavior problems, and increases on-task behavior and academic performance. Cassone (2015) sees MM as a useful tool for improving self-regulation, specifically, orienting, alerting, and executive attention.
By identifying and acknowledging their thoughts in the here-and-now, patients with ADHD have the opportunity to fully consider them in a non-judgmental way, which can lead to improved self-awareness and focus on managing behaviors. Research has shown that MM has reduced both the inattentive and hyperactive symptoms in children and adults (Thomas & Atkinson, 2016). These behavioral changes have been shown to have effects that last beyond end-of-treatment. The changes prompted by MM do not simply improve the daily lives of the individual patients, but can make a meaningful difference in their relationships with their family, friends, and colleagues. It reduces stress in daily interactions and as a result, improves not just mood, but quality of life.
Take Away: Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation and ADHD
• “Mindfulness” is a term that has dual meanings: it can be both a process and an outcome.
• Mindfulness techniques can be taught to children as young as 7 years-old.
• Mindfulness makes it easier to exist in the moment, experiencing and processing events as they take place rather than automatically reacting to them, which allows for behavior change.
• Mindfulness practice leads to becoming more engaged in activities, with family, friends, and colleagues, which can deepen relationships on many levels.
• With practice, mindfulness meditation improves the ability to handle challenges and adverse events.
• Mindfulness, with or without medication has shown to be a viable treatment for adults with ADHD.
• Mindfulness works especially well when used in conjunction with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and other treatments for ADHD.
• Mindfulness can be used to address many issues that are co-morbid with ADHD, including anxiety, OCD, depression, substance misuse/abuse, and eating disorders.
• Mindfulness improves physical health by reducing stress, lowering blood pressure, and improving sleep, cardiac, and GI issues.
References
Abram, J. (2013). The impact of mindfulness practice on the behavior, wellbeing, and cognition of preadolescent students. Retrieved from http://archives.evergreen.edu/masterstheses/Accession89-10MIT/Abrams_MIT2013.pdf
Bachmann, K., Lam, A., & Philipsen, A. (2016). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and the adult ADHD Brain: A neuropsychotherapeutic perspective. Front Psychiatry, 7. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4921925/
Bueno, V., Kozasa, E., da Silva, M., Alves, T., Louza, M. & Pompeia, S. (2015). Mindfulness meditation improves mood, quality of life, and attention in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. BioMed Research International. Retrieved from https://www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/962857/
Cassone, A. R. (2015). Mindfulness training as an adjunct to evidence-based treatment for ADHD within families. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(2),147-157.
Greenberg, J., Reiner, K., & Meiran, N. (2012). “Mind the trap”: Mindfulness practice reduces cognitive rigidity. PLoS One, 7(5) doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036206
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1996). Full Catastrophe Living. Piakus Books, London.
Thomas, G. & Atkinson, C. (2016). Measuring the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention for children’s attentional functioning. Educational & Child Psychology, 33(1), 51-64.
Jan 4, 2017 | Research Updates
Katya Rubia, D. Phil
The presentation by Prof Katya Rubia reviews the state of the art of the evidence for brain abnormalities in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD has been investigated with brain scanning experiments more than any other childhood disorder. ADHD is still today often reported in the media as a “myth” or as “naughty” children who are medicalised and don’t need to be medicated. However, the last two decades of neuroimaging have shown that people with ADHD indeed have abnormalities in the structure and function of their brain. These children suffer from a delay in brain maturation which may explain why they behave like younger children. Imaging studies show that these children have problems with the development of the frontal parts of the brain which are connected to deep subcortical regions like the basal ganglia and are important for top-down control of behaviour, such as self-control, decision making, forward thinking and considering the consequences of one’s actions. Abnormal development of these brain structures could explain the typical features of impulsiveness in ADHD. Furthermore, these children also have abnormalities in posterior cortical regions like the temporal and parietal lobes that are connected to the frontal lobes and are important for attention skills and could account for the concentration problems exhibited by these children. These brain regions are also innervated by dopamine and the treatment given to these children, stimulant medication, enhances the levels of dopamine and the activity in these brain regions which is why stimulant drugs work very well for most ADHD patients.
An important research question, however, is whether the brain abnormalities in ADHD are specific to ADHD or shared with other childhood disorders? This is crucial if we want to use neuroimaging in the future to help differentiate between disorders or to find the best tailored treatment for each disorder based on their brain abnormalities rather than by trial-and-error as it is currently done. Therefore, we conducted several meta-analyses to compare the imaging deficits in children and adults with ADHD with other disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). People with OCD, although they also have problems with self-control, like inhibiting their compulsions and obsessions, have very different brain abnormalities to people with ADHD. While ADHD children and adults have smaller structure and function of the basal ganglia, OCD patients have enlarged structure and function in the basal ganglia and deficits in different frontal parts of the brain than ADHD, in regions that are important for top-down control of emotions rather than attention. Hence, in OCD there is a dysregulation of the connection between the basal ganglia (overactive and larger) and the frontal lobe (underactive and smaller), while in ADHD both parts are smaller and underdeveloped. People with ASD also have different brain abnormalities than ADHD in different frontal parts of the brain that are crucial for emotion processing.
One of the most exciting advances in the field of ADHD imaging research is to develop new and targeted brain-based treatments for ADHD based on the brain deficits we have found in imaging studies. In our lab, we used fMRI-Neurofeedback, which teaches ADHD children to activate a specific part of their brain we have shown is not working properly, namely the inferior frontal cortex, via a computer game that is connected to their brain activity. Every time the children enhance the activity in this frontal region of their brain, by trial-and-error, something happens on the computer screen. We find that children with ADHD can learn to self-regulate their brain activity with fMRI-Neurofeedback and this is associated with an improvement in their clinical symptoms and an improvement of their brain activity in this region. Clearly, more studies are needed and the future will tell whether it will be possible to change ADHD behaviours by reversing the associated brain abnormalities these children have.
Dr. Rubia will be presenting at the 2017 APSARD Annual Meeting on “Neuroimaging of ADHD: Disorder-Specificity and Translation Into Neurotherapy.”
Jan 2, 2017 | Research Updates
Newark, P. E., Elsässer, M., & Stieglitz, R. (2016). Self-esteem, self-efficacy, and resources in adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20, 279-290. doi: 10.1177/1087054712459561
David Giwerc, MCAC, MCC
Background: Even though therapy studies indicate beneficial effects of focusing on resources and Positive Psychology stresses the importance of a resources-oriented view in psychotherapy, these sorts of resources have played a subordinate role in the treatment of adults with ADHD. Few therapy manuals or guidebooks emphasize the strengths adults with ADHD possess.
Study Objective: The primary objective of this study was to explore differences in self-esteem, self-efficacy, and resources in untreated adults with ADHD in comparison with healthy adults in the Control Group. Relationships between self-esteem (overall opinion of ourselves and self-value as a person), self-efficacy (in this study was identified as generalized self-efficacy [GSE]) characterized by a broad and stable sense of personal competence about coping effectively with diverse stressful situations, and resources (strengths” or “potentials” of either a person (internal resources) or the environment (external resources) were surveyed.
Method: A total of 43 adults who met DSM-IV-TR criteria for ADHD in adulthood were matched with a nonclinical sample in terms of age and gender. All participants (N = 86) were assessed with self-ratings:
Symptom Checklist-90–Revised, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, General Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale, and Dick’s
Resources Checklist.
Results: Adults with ADHD showed lower levels of self-esteem and self-efficacy when compared with the control group. These results are consistent with the current literature.
However, people with ADHD also endorsed the resources of family, leisure time, housing, ability to love, courage, and faith, which provide sources of support that can be fostered in psychotherapy and ADHD Coaching.
Discussion:
A crucial element in psychotherapy for adult ADHD is to
break the vicious cycle of negative appraisal and to adopt positive strategies when difficulties arise.
Improved self-awareness of available resources, for adults with ADHD, can be useful in handling their impairing challenges while also achieving important objectives. Hence, self-esteem and self-efficacy can develop by the consistent
use of strengths to effectively manage difficult situations and create new positive experience which can be applied in everyday life
The foundation of the ADHD coaching process is built upon a focus of acknowledgement of individual’s strengths, resources and empowering adults with ADHD to identify their own solutions through strategic questioning which can lead to successful outcomes.
Most coaches and therapists know from their professional experience that resources/strengths can influence the lives of adults with ADHD in a favorable way: and self-esteem and self-efficacy can grow.
The ADHD brain is unique in how and what it activates momentum. The character strengths are also unique to the core being of each individual with ADHD and how it can activate self-initiated action(self-efficacy) so they can feel good about themselves (self-esteem) with the specific actions they are able to complete.
The results of this research have important implications for future coaching and therapeutic interventions using the resources of strengths for the effective treatment/management of adult ADHD.
Future Research:
An exploratory study could be designed to identify and expand the discovery of specific adult ADHD resources, strengths which can enhance self-esteem, self-efficacy. Expanding future research to include education about and integration of the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA; Peterson & Seligman, 2004) with research participants. The VIA is a psychometrically valid scale that is readily available online at no cost. It is a self-report assessment which measures six virtue categories and 24 character strengths found to be universal across cultures, nations, belief systems. In the field of Positive Psychology, the VIA strengths are considered to be the “basic building blocks” to a flourishing life.
Even though they are not referred to as such, the study referred to strengths and virtues with similar definitions to those used in the VIA survey (i.e. virtue of courage), the VIA strength of faith (aligned with VIA strength of spirituality) and ability to love (VIA strength of love) as resources. The VIA would provide another way to measure virtues and strengths that are endorsed by adults with ADHD as components of their self-definitions.
What would happen to the list of resources/strengths for adults with ADHD if they were educated about the VIA and used it as a tool to identify their core, signature strengths? The VIA character strengths survey represents 24 capacities that all human being possess and is readily available online at no cost. (www.viacharacter.org/survey/account/register)
The ADHD brain is unique in how and what it activates momentum. The character strengths are also unique to the core being of each individual with ADHD and how it can activate self-initiated action(self-efficacy) so they can feel good about themselves (self-esteem) with the specific actions they are able to complete.
The VIA provides a wider array established character strengths than those listed in the Newark et al. study. The use of this measure with samples of adults with ADHD would provide a more nuanced and perhaps representative view of strengths and resources that may be relevant to the relationship of strengths, self-esteem and self-efficacy for adults with ADHD.
Reference
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A classification and handbook. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Dec 16, 2016 | Research Updates
Amori Yee Mikami, PhD
Associate Professor | Department of Psychology University of British Columbia
Much has been written about social skills and peer relationship problems among youth with ADHD. However, peer interactions change dramatically as children age, and considerably less is known about the social worlds of adults with ADHD. Online social networking websites such as Facebook are highly popular methods of social communication for emerging adults. Individuals 18-25 are the age group most likely to use Facebook, with women over-represented among Facebook users relative to men. Therefore, having skilled, socially competent online interactions is important and relevant for the social world of emerging adults. However, how do emerging adults with ADHD, particularly women, navigate Facebook?
My colleagues and I investigated this question in 228 women participating in the Berkeley Girls Longitudinal Study, 140 of whom met diagnostic criteria for ADHD in childhood and 88 who composed a matched comparison sample. The women entered the study when they were about 9 years old. Approximately 10 years later, when they were entering adulthood, we asked them about their use of online social networking websites, and we friend requested them on Facebook (most of the women had a Facebook page).
Women with histories of childhood ADHD expressed a preference for communicating with others online as opposed to face-to-face. They stated they felt more comfortable online and perceived that they could “be themselves” more often. They were also more likely to report talking to strangers online, whereas women with no history of ADHD typically talked online with friends whom they already knew from face-to-face contexts.
However, when research team members who did not know the women (or the women’s ADHD history) looked at these women’s Facebook pages, an interesting story emerged. It seemed that women with histories of childhood ADHD had fewer Facebook friends than women with no history of ADHD. In addition, the posts from the Facebook friends tended to have less emotional support and less positive connection in them.
We then got interested in what might have contributed to women with histories of ADHD looking different on Facebook. Follow-up analyses suggested that having ADHD in childhood tended to predict girls being rejected by their face-to-face peers in elementary school and middle school. In turn, being rejected by face-to-face peers predicted women, in emerging adulthood, preferring online methods of communication yet also having poorer observed relationships online. We wonder if long histories of peer rejection in school may deprive girls with ADHD from having the experiences that teach someone how to build positive relationships, and how to socialize in a skilled fashion online.
The online world is here to stay, and socially navigating relationships online is a crucial skill for emerging adults. Women, who more often use Facebook relative to men, may be especially affected by this technology. These findings suggest that, similar to the way that children with ADHD may have problems with peers in face-to-face situations, social communication problems may transfer over to the online domain for some emerging adults with this disorder. However, we speculate that similar to the way in which it is possible to improve peer relationships face-to-face, this may also be possible to do online, and having good friends online can contribute to happiness and healthy adjustment.
These findings are reported in:
Mikami, A. Y., Szwedo, D. E., Ahmad, S. I., Samuels, A. S., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2015). Online social communication patterns among emerging adult women with histories of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124(3), 576-588. doi: 10.1037/abn0000053
Dr. Mikami will be presenting at the 2017 APSARD Annual Meeting on “Eating Pathology Among Adolescent and Emerging Adult Women With ADHD.”
